Dr. Nafizal H. on LinkedIn: Gene Therapy and Bone Marrow in COPD ⏺️Gene Therapy Gene therapy can… (2024)

If you live on the near side of the Moon’s surface, the full Earth (similar to the full Moon on Earth) is so bright that you could potentially read a newspaper at night.The Earth light on the Moon is significantly stronger than the Moon light on Earth due to several factors:1.Size and Reflectivity (Albedo):•The Earth is much larger than the Moon and has a higher albedo. Earth’s albedo is about 30%, meaning it reflects about 30% of the sunlight that hits it. In contrast, the Moon’s albedo is only about 12%.2.Surface Area:•Earth has a greater surface area to reflect sunlight compared to the Moon. This larger reflecting surface area contributes to much brighter light.3.Brightness:•Earth light on the Moon is estimated to be 40 to 100 times brighter than the Moon light on Earth . This makes the Earth appear as a very bright object in the lunar sky, capable of illuminating the Moon’s surface much more effectively than the Moon does for the Earth.These factors combined make Earth light on the Moon a significantly more intense source of illumination than Moon light on Earth.During the full Earth phase on the Moon, the light would likely be sufficient to read a newspaper, though it might not be as comfortable or as easy as reading under typical Earthly indoor conditions.When viewed from the surface of the Moon, Earth would appear as a large, bright, and colorful object in the sky. Here’s how Earth would look:1.Size and Brightness:•Earth would appear about four times larger in diameter than the Moon does from Earth.•It would be much brighter, owing to its larger size and reflectivity. Earth reflects more light than the Moon because it has clouds, oceans, and landmasses that all contribute to its brightness.2.Color:•Earth would look predominantly blue due to its oceans, with white areas representing clouds and polar ice caps.•You would also see some green and brown from the landmasses, creating a dynamic and colorful view.3.Phases:•Just as the Moon goes through phases when viewed from Earth, Earth would also go through phases when viewed from the Moon. Depending on the relative positions of the Sun, Earth, and Moon, you could see Earth in full phase (fully illuminated), gibbous, half, crescent, or new (mostly dark with a faint outline).4.Detail:•Earth’s weather patterns would be visible. You could see large storm systems, cloud formations, and possibly even large geographic features like continents.•Changes in Earth’s appearance could be observed over time due to the movement of clouds and the changing seasons.In summary, from the lunar surface, Earth would be a striking and prominent object, significantly larger and more colorful than the Moon appears from Earth. It would offer a dynamic and continuously changing view due to the Earth’s rotation and the movement of clouds and weather systems.The information was provided and written by ChatGPT.

Q1. When astronauts took photos on the Moon, why did the distant background appear dark?Q2. If you take photos from the Moon at night, why will the sky appear dark and stars may not be visible?Answers provided by ChatGPT:Q1. Answer:•Lack of Atmosphere: The Moon has no atmosphere to scatter light. On Earth, the atmosphere scatters sunlight in all directions, brightening the sky. Without this scattering, the lunar sky remains black.•High Contrast Lighting: The lunar surface is brightly lit by the Sun, but the absence of an atmosphere means there’s no diffused light to illuminate the shadows. This creates very high contrast in photos.•Camera Exposure Settings: The cameras used by astronauts were set to expose for the brightly lit lunar surface and their white spacesuits. This correct exposure for the foreground subjects resulted in the darkening of the background.•Low Albedo of the Lunar Surface: The Moon’s surface has a relatively low albedo (reflectivity). While it reflects some sunlight, it is not as reflective as Earth’s surface.•Photographic Limitations: The dynamic range of the cameras (the range between the lightest and darkest areas they can capture) was limited. Modern cameras have a greater ability to capture details in both bright and dark areas, but the cameras during the Apollo missions were not as advanced.These factors explain why the distant backgrounds in lunar photos appear dark.Q2. Answer:•High Contrast and Exposure Settings: Even at night, the Moon’s surface can be illuminated by Earthshine (reflected sunlight from Earth). If the camera is set to expose for the illuminated surface, the relatively faint light from stars will not be captured. The dynamic range of cameras often isn’t sufficient to capture both the brightly lit lunar surface and the faint light of distant stars simultaneously.•Long Exposure Requirement: Stars are much dimmer than any illuminated object on the Moon, including Earthshine. To capture stars, a long exposure is necessary. However, a long exposure would overexpose any illuminated parts of the lunar surface or other bright objects.•Lack of Atmospheric Effects: While the absence of an atmosphere means there’s no scattering of light, it also means there are no atmospheric effects to enhance star visibility. The stars are visible to the naked eye, but capturing them on camera requires specific settings that typically are not used for other lunar photography.•Visual Acuity of Cameras: The human eye can adapt to see stars in the dark lunar sky, but cameras have limitations based on their sensors and settings. Adjusting a camera to the proper settings to see stars would require a different approach.In summary, while stars are present and visible to the naked eye on the Moon, the settings required for typical lunar surface photography do not capture the stars. Specialized settings and techniques are needed to photograph the stars from the Moon, just as from Earth.

How do you select the site on mRNA to be targeted by antisense oligonucleotides?When designing synthetic antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) to target mRNA, the selection of the target region is crucial for efficacy and specificity. Typically, the following regions are considered:⏺️ Translation Initiation Site (AUG Codon): Targeting near the start codon can inhibit translation initiation.⏺️ Coding Sequence (CDS): Targeting the coding region can block translation elongation or induce mRNA degradation. ⏺️Untranslated Regions (UTRs): Both 5’ and 3’ UTRs can be targeted to affect mRNA stability and translation regulation.⏺️ Splice Sites: Targeting splice junctions can alter splicing patterns (relevant for pre-mRNA in the nucleus).Target Selection Process:⏺️Bioinformatics analysis to identify accessible and unique regions of the mRNA.⏺️Secondary structure prediction to find accessible single-stranded regions.⏺️Experimental validation to confirm target accessibility and ASO efficacy.For mature mRNA, ASOs are typically designed to:▶️Block Translation: Target regions like the translation initiation site or other functional areas within the CDS.▶️Induce Degradation: Promote mRNA degradation through mechanisms such as RNase H-mediated cleavage.▶️Disrupt mRNA Function: Target UTRs to affect mRNA stability or interaction with regulatory proteins.Ensuring Selectivity:The AUG codon is the start codon for all mRNAs, making targeting it non-selective. Selectivity is achieved by designing ASOs to bind to unique sequences flanking the AUG codon or other specific regions of the mRNA.Determining Localization of ASOs:➡️Chemical Modifications: Modifications like phosphorothioate backbones or 2’-O-methyl groups can affect cellular localization and stability.➡️Delivery Mechanism: The method used to deliver ASOs (e.g., lipid nanoparticles, conjugates) influences their cellular uptake and distribution.➡️Experimental Validation: Use fluorescently labeled ASOs to track their localization in cells.➡️Target Accessibility: Ensure the target pre-mRNA is accessible in the nucleus by validating target mRNA expression and localization.Considerations:⏺️Chemical Modifications: Specific modifications can enhance nuclear localization.⏺️Delivery Methods: Techniques like electroporation or lipofection can direct ASOs to the nucleus.⏺️Empirical Testing: Using cell-based assays to verify ASO localization and target engagement.Each mRNA has unique 5’ and 3’ UTR sequences specific to the gene it transcribes, which allows for diverse regulatory mechanisms.

Histone Acetyltransferases (HATs) as a Drug TargetIn the nucleus where secrets hide,Histone acetyltransferases abide,With a touch so light, an acetyl they send,Histones unwind, and chromatin bends.Gene expression in their tender care,Euchromatin forms, open and fair,Transcription factors, they find their way,RNA polymerase, joins the fray.Opposite HDACs, in a dance of might,Adding acetyls, turning on the light,Genes once silent, now take flight,In the cycle of day, and deep of night.Cell cycles turn, differentiation calls,HATs answer, within cellular walls,Modulating genes, guiding the flow,In the dance of life, they set the tempo.Beyond histones, their influence spreads,To proteins diverse, where pathways are led,Stability, location, and action they sway,Transcription factors, signal relay.In asthma’s breath and COPD’s plight,HAT activators bring new light.Enhancing gene expression’s course,They offer hope, a powerful force.Cancer’s shadow, they sometimes cast,Aberrant acetylation, roles miscast,Tumor suppressors, silenced in plight,HAT inhibitors aim to make things right.Neurological paths, they seek to heal,In neurons’ whispers, their secrets reveal,Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s, a hope they provide,Modulating genes, altering the tide.Inflammation and immune’s fervent cry,In HATs’ touch, potential lies,Modulating genes, calming the storm,In autoimmune realms, bringing reform.Challenges rise in the quest to find,Selectivity and specificity, intertwined,Targeting HATs, with precision and grace,Minimizing off-targets, in this complex space.Resistance lurks, a battle to face,Combination therapies, in the race,Understanding pathways, biomarkers to seek,Tailored treatments, for the strong and the weak.In combination, strength is found,HAT inhibitors, in efficacy bound,With HDACs, DNA agents, a united front,Overcoming resistance, in this medical hunt.Histone acetyltransferases, in cells so deep,Their acetylation dance, a promise they keep,In cancer, neurons, immune’s grand quest,Their therapeutic potential, striving for the best.…………………………………………………………………Note: If you don’t like seeing my posts, there are easy solutions. You can unfollow me, block me, or simply ignore my posts.……………………………………………………………………

New Target for Asthma and COPD Drug DiscoveryIn the breath of life, targets we seek,To ease the struggle, for lungs grown weak.Five new pathways, hope now unfurls,For asthma’s grip and COPD’s swirls.TSLP, a sentinel bold,In allergic fires, its stories told.Initiating inflammation’s spark,Reducing hyperresponse, its mark.IL-33, a signal loud,Amplifies type 2’s shroud.In asthma’s flare and COPD’s tide,Reducing inflammation, where troubles hide.GPR65, a gatekeeper grand,In airway responses, it takes its stand.Modulating immunity’s fervent call,Bringing balance, preventing the fall.TSPO, mitochondrial knight,In oxidative stress, it sheds its light.Inflammation’s flames, it seeks to tame,In COPD’s shadow, it stakes its claim.YKL-40, in patients it’s found,Inflammation’s echo, a binding ground.In remodeling airways, it plays a part,A target for therapy, a healing start.With each new target, a promise unfolds,In the realm of breath, stories retold.New drugs to discover, pathways to chart,Bringing relief, and hope to the heart.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::TSLP stands for: Thymic Stromal LymphopoietinIL-33 stands for: Interleukin-33GPR65 stands for: G-Protein Coupled Receptor 65TSPO stands for: Translocator Protein 18 kDaYKL-40 stands for: Chitinase-3-like Protein 1.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::…………………………………………………………………Note: If you don’t like seeing my posts, there are easy solutions. You can unfollow me, block me, or simply ignore my posts.……………………………………………………………………

Histone Deacetylases (HDACs) as a Drug TargetIn cells where life’s secrets lie,HDACs whisper, unseen by the eye.Enzymes deft with silent grace,Removing acetyls, they find their place.Histones wrapped in chromatin tight,Genes suppressed, kept from light.Condensation reigns, transcription fades,In the shadows, HDAC parades.Gene expression, a tale they tell,With acetyls gone, silence fell.Opposing HATs, they weave their art,In the genome’s core, they play their part.Cell cycles turn with HDAC’s hand,Differentiation, by their command.Altering genes, they shape each phase,Guiding cells through life’s maze.Beyond histones, they venture far,Deacetylating proteins near and far.Stability, function, in their sway,Transcription factors in their play.In cancer’s realm, and diseases dire,HDACs spark a genetic fire.Neurodegeneration, heart’s dismay,HDACs’ missteps lead astray.Yet hope emerges, in labs so bright,HDAC inhibitors join the fight.Vorinostat, romidepsin’s call,Reactivating genes, they stand tall.For cancer cells, they spell the end,Tumor suppressors, they defend.In blood and solid, malignancies fall,Panobinostat’s might answers the call.Neurological paths, they seek to mend,In Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s, they extend.Protecting neurons, modulating flow,HDAC inhibitors, promise they show.Cardiovascular health, they aim to restore,Gene expression, heartbeats more.Inflammation tamed, immune response clear,HDAC inhibitors, the future they steer.In asthma’s breath and COPD’s plight,HDAC inhibitors bring new light.Modulating inflammation’s course,They offer hope, a powerful force.Challenges rise in drug design,Selectivity, specificity define.Isoforms targeted, side effects minimized,Precision therapy, our goal prized.Resistance lurks, a foe to beat,Combination strategies, our plan complete.Biomarkers guide, the tailored cure,Enhancing efficacy, making treatments sure.In essence, HDACs stand,Critical regulators, life’s command.Targets for drugs, with potential grand,Their therapeutic promise, across the land.…………………………………………………………………Note: If you don’t like seeing my posts, there are easy solutions. You can unfollow me, block me, or simply ignore my posts.…………………………………………………………………….

The RNA Primase as a Drug TargetIn replication’s grand design,RNA primase stands in line.An enzyme small, yet mighty in deed,Laying foundations for life to proceed.Primase, a builder, starts the chain,Synthesizing primers on DNA’s terrain.Short RNA sequences it lays,Guiding DNA polymerase through the maze.Crucial on leading and lagging strands,Primase initiates where others can’t.One primer for the leading strand,Many for lagging, where fragments expand.With helicase and polymerase,It orchestrates DNA’s ballet.Binding proteins ensure strands don’t fray,Together they replicate in perfect sway.From 5’ to 3’, the strand grows wide,Replication smooth, like a flowing tide.On the lagging strand, primase lays,Okazaki fragments, ligase stays.A helper true, primase ensures the task,For polymerase to write on DNA’s page.Against bacteria, inhibitors aim,New antibiotics could be the gain.In dividing cells, primase’s role can’t be denied,Inhibiting it in cancer’s race,Could halt growth, slow the pace.Mutations in primase’s code,Reveal issues we find.Therapies targeting its dance,Offer life a chance.Researchers bold, compounds they seek,Blocking replication’s key,Stopping bacterial growth,Setting us free.In cancer’s fight, a new approach,Stopping replication, hopeful broach.Understanding disorders by primase’s hands,Gene therapy brings hope to light.RNA primase, unsung hero of the cell,In the orchestra of life, it plays so well.From replication’s start to medicine’s hope,Primase guides us, helping us cope.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::What is Okazaki fragments?Okazaki fragments are short sequences of DNA nucleotides that are synthesized discontinuously and later linked together to create the lagging strand during DNA replication. These fragments are produced because DNA polymerase can only synthesize DNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction. On the lagging strand, replication occurs in small segments as the replication fork opens, resulting in these fragments. Once formed, Okazaki fragments are joined together by the enzyme DNA ligase to form a continuous strand.………………………………………………………………….Note: If you don’t like seeing my posts, there are easy solutions. You can unfollow me, block me, or simply ignore my posts.…………………………………………………………………….

The DNA Helicase as a Drug Target In the heart of every cell, where secrets lie,DNA helicase begins its sigh.An enzyme of might, with tasks so grand,It unwinds life’s thread with a steady hand.Unwinding DNA, its essential role,Opening the helix, making it whole.It splits the strands with effortless grace,Allowing replication to take place.Breaking hydrogen bonds with precision’s art,It separates strands, each a counterpart.For replication forks to progress and grow,Helicase ensures that templates flow.Breaking hydrogen bonds with precision’s art,It separates strands, each a counterpart.Not just for copying, but for repair too,It opens the strands for what’s overdue.In DNA repair, it finds its way,Unwinding damage by light of day.Nucleotide excision, it helps to guide,Letting repair proteins work side by side.In recombination, it plays a part,Swapping genes with a genetic heart.Facilitating exchanges, ensuring mix,Creating diversity through intricate tricks.In cancer therapy, it holds a key,Inhibiting helicase, cells cease to be.Dysregulated replication in cancer’s frame,Helicase inhibitors bring lethal acclaim.For antiviral therapies, it stands in fight,Targeting helicases, diminishing viral blight.Hepatitis and herpes, they meet their end,With inhibitors designed to thwart and mend.In genetic disorders, it tells a tale,Mutations in helicase can cause to fail.Werner and Bloom, with syndromes stark,Understanding helicase can hit the mark.Enhancing DNA repair, a noble aim,In faulty cells, it aids the game.Small molecules to boost its might,Maintaining genomes, keeping cells right.In drug discovery, it finds a role,High-throughput screenings make it whole.Inhibitors and activators, new drugs find,Therapeutic agents for humankind.DNA helicase shines so bright,Crucial in life’s delicate designs.With functions vast, it leads the way,A target for healing, in night and day.So here’s to helicase, a molecular knight,Guarding our cells, in the dark and light.With every unwind, a promise renewed,For a future of medicine, strong and true.………………………………………………………………..If you don’t like seeing my posts, there are easy solutions. You can unfollow me, block me, or simply ignore my posts.………………………………………………………………..

The siRNA and its Biological ImportanceIn the cell’s vast and intricate dance,A silent force, with precision and chance.Small interfering RNA takes its stage,In the theater of life, on a genetic page.Born from double-stranded threads,Dicer cuts, the strands are shed.Fragments form, so short and neat,Twenty pairs, a molecular feat.Into RISC, the fragments glide,Strands unwind, as if they slide.The guide strand stays, a faithful friend,To seek and find, to cleave, to mend.A target found, the match is made,RISC binds tight, and roles are played.mRNA, its message cleaved,A silence falls, the cell relieved.Through this dance, genes are tuned,A melody of life attuned.Viruses fall, their whispers quelled,Transposons hushed, their chaos felled.In ninety-eight, a breakthrough came,Fire and Mello, they earned their fame.In worms they found the RNAi way,A Nobel Prize for their display.In medicine, a hopeful light,siRNA, with aim so right.Silencing genes that cause disease,In cancer’s grip, it finds the keys.For viral foes, it stands its ground,In genetic ills, new hope is found.A future bright with promise seen,In every cell, on every gene.So here’s to siRNA’s grace,A tiny player, a mighty case.In silence, strength, in shadows, might,A guardian in the cell’s own fight.…………….. …………. ……………………RISC stands for RNA-Induced Silencing Complex.Dicer Enzyme: An enzyme called Dicer, a ribonuclease, processes the long dsRNA into short double-stranded fragments of siRNA.Note:If you don’t like seeing my posts, there are easy solutions. You can unfollow me, block me, or simply ignore my posts.………………………………………………………………..